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The Divine Comedy
By Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)
A Study Guide

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Original Title

Settings

Characters

Plot Summary

Canto-by-Canto Outline

Themes

Type of Work

Climax

Uniqueness of the Work

Dante's Political Views

Definition of Comedy

Verse Format

Structure

Significance of No. 3

Year Completed

Study Questions

Essay Topics

Author Information

Complete Free Text

Books and Videos

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Original Title
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Originally La commedia di Dante Alighieri (The Comedy of Dante Alighieri). In 1555, when a special edition of the poem was published in Venice, admirers of the great work added the word "Divina" ("Divine") to call attention to its greatness. Thus, it became known as La Divina Commedia (The Divine Comedy) and the author's name was dropped from the title. In the original title, "di" ("of") appears to have a double meaning. On the one hand, it means Dante wrote the work. On the other, it means Dante experienced what took place in the work.
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Settings
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The action takes place in 1300. It begins in the Forest of Darkness on Good Friday, the day commemorating the crucifixion and death of Jesus Christ, and ends the following Thursday. When Dante starts his journey, he is 35 years old–exactly half the biblical life span of "three score years and ten." From the Forest of Darkness, Dante proceeds through Hell and Purgatory, then ascends into Heaven.
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Characters
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Dante: The main character, or protagonist, of the poem is the author himself. No other epic poets before him–including Homer and Vergil–had made themselves the main characters of their poems. Dante's Guides through the afterlife are as follows:
Vergil (Virgil): The Roman poet Publius Vergilius Maro, or Vergil, escorts Dante through Hell and Purgatory. He symbolizes human reason. Vergil (70-19 B.C.), a poet Dante admired, wrote the great Latin epic The Aeneid, which chronicled the exploits of the legendary Trojan hero Aeneas, who escaped Troy after the Trojan War and settled in Italy. There, his descendants founded Rome.
Beatrice: Beatrice Portinari (1265-1290), believed to be the daughter of banker Folco Portinari, guides Dante into the celestial realm. Beatrice, who represents faith and grace, was Dante's first love, and he never forgot her even after he married Gemma Donati and Beatrice married Simon de Bardi.
St. Bernard: A French Cistercian monk and abbot, St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) guides and instructs Dante when the poet reaches the highest region of heaven. Bernard supported the ascendancy of Pope Innocent II against Anacletus II, an antipope. He preached in favor of the Second Crusade, strongly opposed heresy, and wrote many hymns that remain popular today.
Mythological Personages and Creatures: Examples of the mythological figures in The Divine Comedy are the following:
Minos, King of Crete and later judge of the Underworld
Paris and Helen, lovers who caused the Trojan War
Achilles, the proud Greek warrior who offended the gods in various ways
Cerberus, the three-headed dog at the entrance to the Underworld and, in the Inferno, symbol of appetite and gluttony with his three mouths
Geryon, a monster with a stinger who is a symbol of fraud
Ulysses, wily Greek who devised the Trojan horse, enabling Greece to defeat Troy in the Trojan War; he is in hell as a deceiver
Arachne, a maiden turned into a spider after angering Minerva (Athena), goddess of wisdom and war;
The Furies, avengers of crimes
The Harpies, hideous monsters
Chiron, a wise centaur (creature that was part horse and part human)
Jason, famed retriever of the Golden Fleece who abandoned his wife, Medea, for another woman.
Historical Personages: Examples of historical personages in The Divine Comedy are the following:
Vergil (see above)
Homer, the great epic poet of ancient Greece
Horace, Ovid, and Lucan, poets of ancient Rome
Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta, illicit lovers killed by Francesca's husband
Queen Cleopatra of Egypt
Cato, a righteous government official of ancient Rome
Venedico Caccianemico, an Italian politician accused of pimping
Griffolino of Arezzo, who deceived Alberto of Siena by pretending that he could teach him to fly
Pope Nicholas III, associated with simony, the practice of buying or selling ecclesiastical offices or benefices
Pierre de la Brosse, chancellor of France who was executed in 1278 but was innocent of the charge against him, treachery
Brutus and Cassius, ringleaders of the assassination plot against Julius Caesar
Judas, betrayer of Christ
St. Thomas Aquinas; St. Benedict; St.Peter; St. John.
Supernatural Beings: These include Lucifer, demons, and angels..
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Plot Summary
By Michael J. Cummings...© 2003
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.......The Divine Comedy has three sections: Inferno (Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory) and Paradiso (Paradise or Heaven). The first section has 33 cantos (chapters) and an introduction of 1 canto for a total of 34. The second and third sections each have 33 cantos. The characters include mythological and historical personages.
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The Forest of Error
.......On Good Friday in 1300, the 35-year-old Dante enters the Forest of Error, a dark and ominous wood symbolizing his own sinful materialism and the materialism of the world in general. At the top of a hill in the distance, he sees a light representing the hope of the resurrected Christ. When he attempts to climb toward the light, a leopard, lion, and she-wolf–which symbolize human iniquity–block his way. The spirit of the Roman poet Vergil (also spelled Virgil), author of the epic The Aeneid, comes forth to rescue him. Vergil, the exemplar of human reason, offers to escort him out of the Forest of Error by another route, for there is no way to get by the she-wolf. This alternate route leads first through Hell, where Dante will recognize sin for what it is, then through Purgatory, where Dante will abjure sin and purge himself of it. Finally, it leads to Heaven, where Beatrice–a woman Dante had loved before her death in 1295–will become his guide while Vergil returns from whence he came, for human reason cannot mount the heights of paradise. Dante happily agrees to make the journey, and they depart.
Hell (Inferno)
......After passing into hell, Dante and Vergil hear the groans and wails of the damned in the outer reaches of the abyss and see persons who were lukewarm and halfhearted in their moral lives. They then cross the Acheron River and arrive at a cone-shaped cavern with nine circles. In the First Circle at the top, called Limbo, are the least offensive souls, such as unbaptized but well-meaning heathens. They suffer no torment. However, they cannot move on to Purgatory or Heaven because they died before Christ brought redemption. Vergil himself dwells in the First Circle.
......They then pass down through the other eight circles, seeing terrible sights of suffering experienced by those who died in mortal sin (in Catholicism, the worst kind of sin, such as willful murder and rape). Circles 2 through 6 contain those who could not control their desires for sex, food, money, or wayward religion (heresy). Among the personages they encounter are Queen Cleopatra of Egypt, the Greek warrior Achilles, Helen of Troy, and the man who carried her off, Paris.The Seventh Circle contains those who committed violence against themselves or others, or against God himself. The Eighth Circle contains hypocrites, thieves, forgers, alchemists, swindlers, flatterers and deceivers. The Ninth Circle, reserved for the worst evildoers, are traitors of every kind–those who were false to friends or relatives, or to their country or a noble cause. Dante sees two political leaders frozen together in a lake, head to head. He also encounters the most abominable of all traitors–Judas Iscariot, the betrayer of Christ, and Brutus and Cassius, the assassins of Julius Caesar. Satan himself, the arch fiend, is here frozen in the lake.
Purgatory (Purgatorio)
......Dante and Vergil next arrive at the Mount of Purgatory, which is surrounded by an ocean. On ten terraces running up the side of the mountain are souls purging themselves of venial (less serious) sins involving negligence, pride, envy, sloth, political intrigue and other transgressions. Dante exults in the light and hope that greet him after leaving the horrid realm of darkness and death. At the entrance to Purgatory, Dante and Vergil meet Cato, an ancient Roman who, as censor in 184 B.C., attempted to root out immorality and corruption in Roman life. In Dante's poem, Cato symbolizes the four cardinal virtues of Roman Catholicism: prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance. On Cato's instructions, Vergil cleanses Dante's face of the grime of hell and girdles his waist with a reed, symbolizing humility. An angel writes seven P's across Dante's forehead, each representing one of the seven deadly sins. (The Italian word for sin begins with a P.) The angel then tells Dante he must wash away the P's–that is, purge himself of sin–while in Purgatory.
......Among the terrace dwellers are excommunicants who repented before they died, a lazy Florentine who postponed doing good works most of his life, and monarchs who neglected their duties. As Dante and Vergil continue upward, they also meet the proud, the envious, the avaricious, the wasteful and the lustful. Farther up the mountain, they can gaze across the River Lethe and see the Earthly Paradise, signaling it is time for Vergil to leave and return to his abode, the First Circle of the heathens.
......Still observing from the opposite bank of the river (and still in Purgatory) Dante sees a pageant in which the participants and sacred objects symbolize books of the Bible, virtues, the human and divine natures of Christ and Saints Peter, and Paul and other disciples of the Christian religion. Beatrice is there, too. Out of love for him, she rebukes him for the sins he has committed. After he confesses his guilt, she invites the purified Dante to come across the river and ascend to heaven.
Heaven (Paradiso)
......Heaven, a place of perfect happiness, is a celestial region with planets, stars and other bodies. It resembles the earth-centered (geocentric) system of Ptolemy rather than the sun-centered (heliocentric) system of Copernicus and Galileo. The placement of an individual depends on the level of goodness he or she achieved in life, although everyone experiences the fulness of God's love. Dante and Beatrice then rise into heaven, where the poet discovers that even some pagans–persons born before the time of Christ–abide in the heavenly realm because they accepted revelations from God. At the lowest level of Heaven is the Moon. Next come Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Stars (where St. Peter condemns corruption under Pope Boniface VIII) and the Primum Mobile (First Mover), the cause of time and of all movement in the universe. The highest level is the Empyrean, the abode of the Triune God, the Virgin Mary, other angels, and saints.
......When Dante and Beatrice reach the Empyrean, St. Bernard comes forth to prepare Dante to look upon the resplendent beings within. Dante realizes here that knowledge of heaven comes only through the grace of God and deep meditation, not through theology textbooks. After St. Bernard prays to Mary on Dante's behalf, she begs the light of God to welcome the prayer. When Dante glimpses that light, it overpowers him with a love so radiant that he cannot fathom its depth or even remember what he saw.
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Canto-by-Canto Outline
The following canto-by-canto outline of The Divine Comedy accompanies the Charles Eliot Norton translation of the epic, which is in the public domain and is available at Project Gutenberg. Click here to access the complete text.
Hell (Inferno)
CANTO I. Dante, astray in a wood, reaches the foot of a hill which he begins to ascend; he is hindered by three beasts; he turns back and is met by Virgil, who proposes to guide him into the eternal world.
CANTO II. Dante, doubtful of his own powers, is discouraged at the outset.–Virgil cheers him by telling him that he has been sent to his aid by a blessed Spirit from Heaven.–Dante casts off fear, and the poets proceed.
CANTO III. The gate of Hell. Virgil leads Dante in.–The punishment of the neither good nor bad.–Acheron, and the sinners on its bank.–Charon.–Earthquake.–Dante swoons.
CANTO IV. The further side of Acheron.–Virgil leads Dante into Limbo, the First Circle of Hell, containing the spirits of those
who lived virtuously but without Christianity.–Greeting of Virgil by his fellow poets.–They enter a castle, where are the shades of ancient worthies.–Virgil and Dante depart.
CANTO V. The Second Circle: Carnal sinners.–Minos.–Shades renowned of old.–Francesca da Rimini.
CANTO VI. The Third Circle: the Gluttonous.–Cerberus.–Ciacco.
CANTO VII. The Fourth Circle: the Avaricious and the Prodigal.– Pluto.–Fortune.–The Styx.–The Fifth Circle: the Wrathful and
the Sullen.
CANTO VIII. The Fifth Circle.–Phlegyas and his boat.–Passage of the Styx.–Filippo Argenti.–The City of Dis.–The demons refuse
entrance to the poets.
CANTO IX. The City of Dis.–Eriehtho.–The Three Furies.–The Heavenly Messenger.–The Sixth Circle: Heresiarchs.
CANTO X. The Sixth Circle: Heresiarchs.–Farinata degli Uberti.– Cavalcante Cavalcanti.–Frederick II.
CANTO XI. The Sixth Circle: Heretics.–Tomb of Pope Anastasius.– Discourse of Virgil on the divisions of the lower Hell.
CANTO XII. First round of the Seventh Circle: those who do violence to others.–Tyrants and Homicides.–The Minotaur.–The Centaurs.–Chiron.–Nessus.–The River of Boiling Blood, and the Sinners in it.
CANTO XIII. Second round of the Seventh Circle: those who have done violence to themselves and to their goods.–The Wood of Self-murderers.–The Harpies.–Pier della Vigne.–Lano of Siena and others.
CANTO XIV. Third round of the Seventh Circle those who have done violence to God.–The Burning Sand.–Capaneus.–Figure of the Old Man in Crete.–The Rivers of Hell.
CANTO XV. Third round of the Seventh Circle: those who have done violence to Nature.–Brunetto Latini.–Prophecies of misfortune to Dante.
CANTO XVI. Third round of the Seventh Circle: those who have done violence to Nature.–Guido Guerra, Tegghiaio Aldobrandi and Jacopo Rusticucci.–The roar of Phlegethon as it pours downward.– The cord thrown into the abyss.
CANTO XVII. Third round of the Seventh Circle: those who have done violence to Art.–Geryon.–The Usurers.–Descent to the Eighth Circle.
CANTO XVIII. Eighth Circle: the first pit: Panders and Seducers.– Venedico Caccianimico.–Jason.–Second pit: false flatterers.– Alessio Interminei.–Thais.
CANTO XIX. Eighth Circle: third pit: Simonists.–Pope Nicholas III.
CANTO XX. Eighth Circle: fourth pit: Diviners, Soothsayers, and Magicians.– Amphiaraus.– Tiresias.– Aruns.–Manto.–Eurypylus.– Michael Scott.–Asolente.
CANTO XXI. Eighth Circle: fifth pit: Barrators.–A magistrate of Lucca.–The Malebranche.–Parley with them.
CANTO XXII. Eighth Circle: fifth pit: Barrators.–Ciampolo of Navarre.–Brother Gomita.–Michael Zanche.–Fray of the Malebranche.
CANTO XXIII. Eighth Circle. Escape from the fifth pit.–The sixth pit: Hypocrites.–The Jovial Friars.–Caiaphas.–Annas.–Frate Catalano.
CANTO XXIV. Eighth Circle. The poets climb from the sixth pit.– Seventh pit: Fraudulent Thieves.–Vanni Fucci.–Prophecy of calamity to Dante.
CANTO XXV. Eighth Circle: seventh pit: Fraudulent Thieves.– Cacus.–Agnello Brunellesehi and others.
CANTO XXVI. Eighth Circle: eighth pit: Fraudulent Counsellors.– Ulysses and Diomed.
CANTO XXVII. Eighth Circle: eighth pit: Fraudulent Counsellors.– Guido da Montefeltro.
CANTO XXVIII. Eighth Circle: ninth pit: Sowers of discord and schism.–Mahomet and Ali.–Fra Dolcino.–Pier da Medicina.– Curio.–Mosca.–Bertran de Born.
CANTO XXIX. Eighth Circle: ninth pit.–Geri del Bello.–Tenth pit: Falsifiers of all sorts.–Griffolino of Mezzo.–Capocchio.
CANTO XXX. Eighth Circle: tenth pit: Falsifiers of all sorts.– Myrrha.–Gianni Schiechi.–Master Adam.–Sinon of Troy.
CANTO XXXI. The Giants around the Eighth Circle.–Nimrod.– Ephialtes.–Antiens sets the Poets down in the Ninth Circle.
CANTO XXXII. Ninth Circle: Traitors. First ring: Caina. –Counts of Mangona.– Camicion de' Pazzi.–Second ring: Antenora.– Bocca degli Abati.–Buoso da Duera.–Count Ugolino.
CANTO XXXIII. Ninth Circle: Traitors. Second ring: Antenora.– Count Ugolino.–Third ring: Ptolomaea.–Brother Alberigo.–Branca d' Oria.
CANTO XXXIV. Ninth Circle: Traitors. Fourth ring: Judecca.– Lucifer.– Judas, Brutus and Cassius.– Centre of the universe.– Passage from Hell.–Ascent to the surface of the Southern hemisphere.
Purgatory (Purgatorio)
CANTO I. Invocation to the Muses.–Dawn of Easter on the shore of Purgatory.--The Four Stars.–Cato.–The cleansing of Dante from
the stains of Hell.
CANTO II. Sunrise.–The Poets on the shore.–Coming of a boat, guided by an angel, bearing souls to Purgatory.–Their landing.–Casella and his song.–Cato hurries the souls to the mountain.
CANTO III. Ante-Purgatory.–Souls of those who have died in contumacy of the Church.–Manfred.
CANTO III. Ante-Purgatory.–Souls of those who have died in contumacy of the Church.–Manfred.
CANTO IV. Ante-Purgatory.–Ascent to a shelf of the mountain.–The negligent, who postponed repentance to the last hour–Belacqua.
CANTO V. Ante-Purgatory.–Spirits who had delayed repentance, and met with death by violence, but died repentant.–Jacopo del Cassero.–Buonconte da Montefeltro.–Via de' Tolomei.
CANTO VI. Ante-Purgatory.–More spirits who had deferred repentance till they were overtaken by a violent death.–Efficacy of prayer.–Sordello.–Apostrophe to Italy.
CANTO VII. Virgil makes himself known to Sordello.–Sordello leads the Poets to the Valley of the Princes who have been negligent of salvation.–He points them out by name.
CANTO VIII. Valley of the Princes.–Two Guardian Angels.–Nino Visconti.–The Serpent.–Corrado Malaspina.
CANTO IX. Slumber and Dream of Dante.–The Eagle.–Lucia.–The Gate of Purgatory.–The Angelic Gatekeeper.–Seven P's inscribed on Dante's Forehead.–Entrance to the First Ledge.
CANTO X. First Ledge the Proud.–Examples of humility sculptured on the Rock.
CANTO XI. First Ledge: the Proud.–Prayer.–Omberto Aldobrandeschi.–Oderisi d' Agubbio.–Provinzan Salvani.
CANTO XII. First Ledge: the Proud.–Examples of the punishment of Pride graven on the pavement.–Meeting with an Angel who removes one of the P's.–Ascent to the Second Ledge.
CANTO XIII. Second Ledge: the Envious.–Examples of Love.–The Shades in haircloth, and with sealed eyes.–Sapla of Siena.
CANTO XIV. Second Ledge: the Envious.–Guido del Duca.–Rinieri de' Calboli.–Examples of the punishment of Envy.
CANTO XV. Second Ledge: the Envious.–An Angel removes the second P from Dante's forehead.–Discourse concerning the Sharing of Good.–Ascent to the Third Ledge: the Wrathful.–Examples of Forbearance seen in Vision.
CANTO XVI. Third Ledge: the Wrathful.–Marco Lombardo.–His discourse on Free Will, and the Corruption of the World.
CANTO XVII. Third Ledge: the Wrathful.–Issue from the Smoke.–Vision of examples of Anger–Ascent to the Fourth Ledge,
where Sloth is purged–Second Nightfall–Virgil explains how Love is the root of Virtue and of Sin.
CANTO XVIII. Fourth Ledge: the Slothful.–Discourse of Virgil on Love and Free Will.–-Throng of Spirits running in haste to redeem their Sin.–The Abbot of San Zeno.–Dante falls asleep.
CANTO XIX. Fourth Ledge: the Slothful.–Dante dreams of the Siren–The Angel of the Pass.–Ascent to the Fifth Ledge.–Pope Adrian V.
CANTO XX. Fifth Ledge: the Avaricious.–The Spirits celebrate examples of Poverty and Bounty.–Hugh Capet.–His discourse on his descendants.–Trembling of the Mountain.
CANTO XXI. Fifth Ledge: the Avaricious.–Statius.–Cause of the trembling of the Mountain.–Statius does honor to Virgil.
CANTO XXII. Ascent to the Sixth Ledge–Discourse of Statius and Virgil.–Entrance to the Ledge: the Gluttonous.–The Mystic Tree.–Examples of Temperance.
CANTO XXIII. Sixth Ledge the Gluttonous.–Forese Donati.–Nella.–Rebuke of the women of Florence.
CANTO XXIV. Sixth Ledge: the Gluttonous.–Forese Donati.–Bonagiunta of Lucca.–Pope Martin IV.–Ubaldin dalla Pila.–Bonifazio.–Messer Marchese.–Prophecy of Bonagiunta concerning Gentucca, and of Forese concerning Corso de' Donati.–Second Mystic Tree.–The Angel of the Pass.
CANTO XXV. Ascent to the Seventh Ledge.–Discourse of Statius on generation, the infusion of the Soul into the body, and the corporeal semblance of Souls after death.–The Seventh Ledge:the Lustful.–The mode of their Purification.
CANTO XXVI. Seventh Ledge: the Lustful.–Sinners in the fire, going in opposite directions.–Guido Guinicelli.–Arnaut Daniel.
CANTO XXVII. Seventh Ledge: the Lustful.–Passage through the Flames.–Stairway in the rock.–Night upon the stairs.–Dream of Dante.–Morning.–Ascent to the Earthly Paradise.–Last words of Virgil.
CANTO XXVIII. The Earthly Paradise.–The Forest.–A Lady gathering flowers on the bank of a little stream.–Discourse with her concerning the nature of the place.
CANTO XXIX. The Earthly Paradise.–Mystic Procession or Triumph of the Church.
CANTO XXX. The Earthly Paradise.–Beatrice appears.–Departure of Virgil.–Reproof of Dante by Beatrice.
CANTO XXXI. The Earthly Paradise.–Reproachful discourse of Beatrice, and confession of Dante.–Passage of Lethe.–Appeal of the Virtues to Beatrice.–Her Unveiling.
CANTO XXXII. The Earthly Paradise.–Return of the Triumphal procession.–The Chariot bound to the Mystic Tree.–Sleep of Dante.–His waking to find the Triumph departed.–Transformation of the Chariot.–The Harlot and the Giant.
CANTO XXXIII. The Earthly Paradise.–Prophecy of Beatrice concerning one who shall restore the Empire.–Her discourse with Dante.–The river Eunoe.–Dante drinks of it, and is fit to ascend to Heaven.
Paradise (Paradiso)
CANTO I. Proem [Introduction].–Invocation.–Beatrice and Dante ascend to the Sphere of Fire.– Beatrice explains the cause of their ascent.
CANTO II. Proem.–Ascent to the Moon.–The cause of Spots on the Moon.–Influence of the Heavens.
CANTO III. The Heaven of the Moon.–Spirits whose vows had been broken.–Piccarda Donati.–The Empress Constance.
CANTO IV. Doubts of Dante, respecting the justice of Heaven and the abode of the blessed, solved by Beatrice.–Question of Dante as to the possibility of reparation for broken vows.
CANTO V. The sanctity of vows, and the seriousness with which they are to be made or changed.–Ascent to the Heaven of Mercury.–The shade of Justinian.
CANTO VI. Justinian tells of his own life.–The story of the Roman Eagle.–Spirits in the planet Mercury.–Romeo.
CANTO VII. Discourse of Beatrice.–The Fall of Man.–The scheme of his Redemption.
CANTO VIII. Ascent to the Heaven of Venus.–Spirits of Lovers, Source of the order and the varieties in mortal things.
CANTO IX. The Heaven of Venus.–Conversation of Dante with Cunizza da Romano,–With Folco of Marseilles.–Rahab.–Avarice of the Papal Court.
CANTO X. Ascent to the Sun.–Spirits of the wise, and the learned in theology.–St. Thomas Aquinas.–He names to Dante those who surround him.
CANTO XI. The Vanity of worldly desires,–St. Thomas Aquinas undertakes to solve two doubts perplexing Dante.–He narrates the life of St. Francis of Assisi.
CANTO XII. Second circle of the spirits of wise religious men, doctors of the Church and teachers.–St. Bonaventura narrates the life of St. Dominic, and tells the names of those who form the circle with him.
CANTO XIII. St. Thomas Aquinas speaks again, and explains the relation of the wisdom of Solomon to that of Adam and of Christ, and declares the vanity of human judgment.
CANTO XIV. At the prayer of Beatrice, Solomon tells of the glorified body of the blessed after the Last Judgment.–Ascent to the Heaven of Mars.–Souls of the Soldiery of Christ in the form of a Cross with the figure of Christ thereon.–Hymn of the Spirits.
CANTO XV. Dante is welcomed by his ancestor, Cacciaguida.– Cacciaguida tells of his family, and of the simple life of Florence in the old days.
CANTO XVI. The boast of blood.–Cacciaguida continues his discourse concerning the old and the new Florence.
CANTO XVII. Dante questions Cacciaguida as to his fortunes.– Cacciaguida replies, foretelling the exile of Dante, and the renown of his Poem.
CANTO XVIII. The Spirits in the Cross of Mars.–Ascent to the Heaven of Jupiter.–Words shaped in light upon the planet by the Spirits.–Denunciation of the avarice of the Popes.
CANTO XIX. The voice of the Eagle.–It speaks of the mysteries of Divine justice; of the necessity of Faith for salvation; of the sins of certain kings.
CANTO XX. The Song of the Just.–Princes who have loved righteousness, in the eye of the Eagle.–Spirits, once Pagans, in bliss.–Faith and Salvation.–Predestination.
CANTO XXI. Ascent to the Heaven of Saturn.–Spirits of those who had given themselves to devout contemplation.–The Golden Stairway.–St. Peter Damian.–Predestination.–The luxury of modern Prelates.
CANTO XXII. Beatrice reassures Dante.–St. Benedict appears.–He tells of the founding of his Order, and of the falling away of its brethren. Beatrice and Dante ascend to the Starry Heaven.– The constellation of the Twins.–Sight of the Earth.
CANTO XXIII. The Triumph of Christ.
CANTO XXIV. St. Peter examines Dante concerning Faith, and approves his answer.
CANTO XXV. St. James examines Dante concerning Hope.–St. John appears,with a brightness so dazzling as to deprive Dante, for the time, of sight.
CANTO XXVI. St. John examines Dante concerning Love.–Dante's sight restored.–Adam appears, and answers questions put to him by Dante.
CANTO XXVII. Denunciation by St. Peter of his degenerate successors.–Dante gazes upon the Earth.–Ascent of Beatrice and Dante to the Crystalline Heaven.–Its nature.–Beatrice rebukes the covetousness of mortals.
CANTO XXVIII. The Heavenly Hierarchy.
CANTO XXIX. Discourse of Beatrice concerning the creation and nature of the Angels.–She reproves the presumption and foolishness of preachers.
CANTO XXX. Ascent to the Empyrean.–The River of Light.–The celestial Rose.–The seat of Henry VII.–The last words of Beatrice.
CANTO XXXI. The Rose of Paradise.–St. Bernard.–Prayer to Beatrice.–The glory of the Blessed Virgin.
CANTO XXXII. St. Bernard describes the order of the Rose, and points out many of the Saints.–The children in Paradise.–The angelic festival.–The patricians of the Court of Heaven.
CANTO XXXIII. Prayer to the Virgin.–The Beatific Vision.–The Ultimate Salvation.

Themes
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Life as a Journey
The Divine Comedy presents life as a journey in which one man (representing all human beings) must overcome obstacles to achieve the ultimate goal, eternal bliss in the sight of God. Therefore--unlike epics such as The Odyssey, The Aeneid, and Beowulf--The Divine Comedy focuses mainly on life as a spiritual journey. The obstacles the traveler must overcome are temptation and sin.
Salvation Through Repentance
Even if a person sins, he is not lost. Sincere contrition and penitence will restore the soul to eligibility for entrance into heaven.
repentance Though a person may sin
Rehabilitation
Although confession of sins and penance will restore a human being to a state of grace, after he dies must he must purge himself of the stains sin leaves on his soul if he has not done so in his lifetime. This purgation in the afterlife takes place in purgatory.
Love
When he was a child of nine, Dante met Beatrice Portinari and loved her from that moment on. Although he married another woman and she married another man, he continued to love her from afar and dedicated many poems to her. She died when she was only 24. In The Divine Comedy, she appears to him in Canto XXX of Purgatory, wearing a white veil and crown. Out of love for him, she rebukes him harshly until, in Canto XXXI, he confesses his guilt as a sinner. She then acts as his guide, leading him into Paradise.
Climax
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The climax of a literary work can be defined as (1) the turning point at which the conflict begins to resolve itself for better or worse, or as (2) the final and most exciting event in a series of events. According to the first definition, the climax of The Divine Comedy occurs in Purgatory when Beatrice causes Dante to admit guilt and repent. According to the second definition, the climax occurs in Paradise when Dante beholds the light of God.
Type of Work
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The Divine Comedy is an epic poem on a vast scale, told by Dante himself in first-person point of view. The Divine Comedy is also an allegory, a work in which characters, objects, and events have figurative as well as literal meanings. For example, in The Divine Comedy, Vergil symbolizes human reason, and Beatrice stands for faith and supernatural truth. The three beasts Dante encounters in Canto 1 represent sin, and various personages in other cantos symbolize specific types of sin, such as envy, sloth, gluttony and lust. Some allegorical characters, objects, or events symbolize several things at the same time.
Year Completed
The Divine Comedy was probably written between 1306 and 1321, although Dante may have begun writing the poem as early as 1300. Most of the poem was written between 1315 and 1321. The poem won a large audience even though copies of it had to be handwritten. (The printing press had not yet been invented.) The Divine Comedy ranks as one of the great literary masterpieces of all time alongside the epics of Homer and Vergil and the greatest plays of Shakespeare.
How Dante's Epic Differs From Previous Epics
Earlier epics, such as Homer's Iliad and Odyssey and the anonymous English work Beowulf, focus on individual heroes in specific locales. The main stories in these epics generally borrow heavily from myths and legends handed down from generation to generation. The Divine Comedy, on the other hand, gets its story mainly from the author's own imagination. In addition, it encompasses heroes and villains from everywhere, including the material and spiritual worlds.
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Dante's Political, Social, and Religious Views
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Passages in The Divine Comedy reflect Dante's political and social views. Generally, he believed in separation of church and state, with the papacy reigning supreme in spiritual matters and the temporal ruler (an emperor or a king) reigning supreme in material matters. As a Roman Catholic, Dante supported the views of his church and accepted its teachings on life after death. However, he did not blindly support the church's leaders. In fact, he places seven popes in Hell in The Divine Comedy.
Definition of Comedy
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A comedy in earlier times was a work with a happy ending. Since The Divine Comedy involves redemption, it fits this category. The word comedy is derived from the Greek words komos (meaning revel, delight or happiness) and aoidos (meaning singer). Thus, a comedy was a work in which a writer "sang" about a happy event. Comedies of earlier times did not necessarily contain jokes or humorous situations. However, they did have to have a happy ending.

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Verse Format and Structure of the Poem
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The Divine Comedy contains 100 cantos (major divisions or "chapters" of the epic poem) written in terza rima, an Italian verse form invented by Dante. It consists of three-line stanzas in which Line 2 of one stanza rhymes with Lines 1 and 3 of the next stanza. The rhyme scheme progresses in the following pattern from the beginning of a canto: aba, bcb, cdc, ded, efe, ghg, and so on. The following English translation of the first lines from the Divine Comedy–with the original Dante lines on the right–demonstrate the rhyme scheme:
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.........Along the journey of our life half way.................Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita
.........I found myself again in a dark wood.................mi ritrovai per una selva oscura
.........Wherein the straight road no longer lay.............ché la diritta via era smarrita.
.........Ah, tongue can never make it understood:........Ahi quanto a dir qual era è cosa dura
.........So harsh and dense and savage to traverse.......esta selva selvaggia e aspra e forte
.........That fear returns in thinking on that wood..........che nel pensier rinova la paura!
.........It is so bitter death is hardly worse....................Tant'è amara che poco è più morte;
.........But, for the good it was my chance to gain,........ma per trattar del ben ch'i' vi trovai,
.........The other things I saw there I'll rehearse.............dirò de l'altre cose ch'i' v'ho scorte
.........English translation: Dale, Peter. The Divine Comedy. London: Anvil Press, 1996.
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Significance of the Number 3
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Dante wrote The Divine Comedy in honor of the three Persons who make up the one God: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. Thus, throughout the poem, the Number 3 has special significance. Consider that the poem has the following:
.........[1]..Three main sections: Hell, Purgatory and Paradise.
.........[2]..33 cantos in each section. (The first section also has an introductory canto.)
.........[3]..Three-line rhyme scheme (terza rima) in which the second line of one stanza rhymes with the first and third lines of the next stanza. (See format above.)
........ [4]..Three guides–Vergil, Beatrice and St. Bernard–who lead Dante through the realms of the afterlife. (See the next paragraph for more information on the guides.)
........ [5]..A division of sin into three types: (1) incontinence, involving lack of self-control over natural appetites (for sex, food, drink, etc.). (2) violence, involving anger and brutality. (3) malice or fraud, including simony, hypocrisy, flattery and forgery.
........ [6}  A leopard, a lion and a wolf symbolizing these sins in the opening canto.
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Free Texts in Italian and English
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The following reliable sites post Dante's epic. Be aware that the quality and readability of English translations vary from book to book, depending on the skill of the translator.
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Bartleby.com, Harvard Classics: English translation in blank verse
Digital Dante: English translation and the original Italian poem
Everypoet.com: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Translation
MediaSoft: Original Italian poem
State University of New York at Stony Brook: James Finn Cotter Translation
Project Gutenberg, Volume 1, Inferno: English translation of Volume 1 by Charles Eliot Norton
Project Gutenberg, Volume 2, Purgatorio: English translation of Volume 2 by Charles Eliot Norton
Project Gutenberg, Volume 3, Paradiso: English translation of Volume 3 by Charles Eliot Norton
Oliver & Boyd, Publishers, Volume 1, Inferno: S. Fowler Wright Translation
Oliver & Boyd, Publishers, Volume 2, Purgatorio: S. Fowler Wright Translation
Oliver & Boyd, Publishers, Volume 3, Paradiso: S. Fowler Wright Translation
Audio Version of Inferno in Italian: Actor Vittorio Gassman reads The Inferno (Hell) in Italian while the listener sees the words.
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Study Questions and Essay Topics

Why does The Divine Comedy remain one of the world's most popular literary classics, appearing in college curriculums around the world?
Do the denizens of Hell (Inferno) have any admirable qualities?
The Roman epic poet Vergil (also spelled Virgil) guided Dante partway through his journey. To what extent did Vergil (70-19 B.C.) guide Dante in the latter's literary career?
To what extent did Dante intend his description of the afterlife to be taken literally? To what extent was it to be taken figuratively or allegorically?
Dante mentioned by name many historical personages condemned to eternal damnation. In doing so, was he going too far? After all, the Bible (Matthew: Chapter 7, Verse 1) declares, "Judge not, lest ye be judged."
Explain in detail the difference between the earth-centered (geocentric) system of Ptolemy and the sun-centered (heliocentric) system of Copernicus and Galileo.
Dante completed The Divine Comedy more than 100 years before the invention of the printing press. Write an essay explaining how a literary work in Dante's time was mass-produced and distributed.

Author Information
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The author of The Divine Comedy was Dante Alighieri, Italy's greatest poet, who was born to a middle-class family in Florence, Italy, in 1265. After his mother died when he was an adolescent, his father remarried and had two more children, a boy and a girl. Dante began writing poetry when he was a teenager, One of his mentors was the poet Vito Cavalcanti, who exerted a strong influence on Dante. Before beginning work on The Divine Comedy, Dante wrote two major works, La Vita Nuova (The New Life) and Il Convivio (The Banquet), both of which included verse and prose. In the latter work, he urged the use of vernacular Italian instead of classical Latin in the composition of literary works. After becoming involved in rivalries between Florentine politicians and between Vatican and secular authorities vying for power, Dante was banished from Florence. In exile, he wrote The Divine Comedy, incorporating in it commentary on the various factions competing for political control. He wrote it in the Italian Tuscan dialect that favors a familiar, conversational style, thus breaking with the tradition that serious literary works had to be written in Latin and thereby helping to establish Italian as the language of literature. He died in Ravenna, Italy, in 1321. .

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Books, Videos, and Audio Media at Amazon.com
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Illustrations for The Divine Comedy: 136 Plates of Heaven, Hell, Purgatory
The Divine Comedy: Charles H. Sisson, Translatorr..
The Divine Comedy: Mark Musa, Translatorr..
The Divine Comedy (Large Print): Henry W. Longfellow, Translatorr..
The Divine Comedy (VHS)..
Botticelli: Picture Cycle for The Divine Comedy: .
Cambridge Companion to Dante: Study Guide
Modern Reader's Guide to Dante's Divine Comedy: Study Guide
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